Key Takeaways
- The Code of Hammurabi introduced early forms of insurance in 1750 B.C.
- Medieval guilds pooled resources for trade loss protection.
- Lloyd’s of London began in 1600s coffeehouses for maritime insurance.
- The Great Fire of London in 1666 led to fire insurance development.
- Mortality tables by Edmund Halley enhanced life insurance practices.
The concept of spreading risk, central to insurance, dates back nearly 4,000 years to the Code of Hammurabi, which established early principles of shared financial responsibility. Over time, this idea evolved through many forms, from medieval guilds that supported members in times of loss to the rise of maritime insurance in the 1600s as global trade expanded.
Landmark developments such as the Great Fire of London spurred the creation of fire and life insurance in England, while Blaise Pascal’s work on probability laid the foundation for modern risk assessment. Together, these milestones shaped the insurance industry as we know it today, a system built to manage uncertainty and protect against loss.
Early Insurance Practices and the Code of Hammurabi
The concept of insurance dates back to around 1750 B.C. with the Code of Hammurabi, which Babylonians carved into a stone monument and several clay tablets. The code describes a form of bottomry, whereby a ship’s cargo could be pledged in exchange for a loan. Repayment of the loan was contingent on a successful voyage, and the debtor did not have to repay the loan if the ship was lost at sea.
From Guilds to Group Coverage: The Evolution of Insurance
In the Middle Ages, most craftsmen were trained through the guild system. Apprentices spent their childhoods working for masters for little or no pay. Once they became masters themselves, they paid dues to the guild and trained their own apprentices.
The wealthier guilds had large coffers that acted as a type of insurance fund. If a master’s practice burned down—a common occurrence in the largely wooden cities of medieval Europe—the guild would rebuild it using money from its own funds. If a master was robbed, the guild would cover their obligations until money started to flow in again. If a master was suddenly disabled or killed, the guild would support them or their surviving family.
This safety net encouraged more people to leave farming to take up trades. As a result, the amount of goods available for trade increased, as did the range of goods and services. The basic style of insurance used by guilds is still around today in the form of group coverage.
Managing Risk at Sea: The Rise of Maritime Insurance
In the late 1600s, shipping was just beginning between the New World and the Old, as colonies were being established and exotic goods were ferried back. The practice of underwriting emerged in the same London coffeehouses that operated as the unofficial stock exchange for the British Empire. A coffeehouse owned by Edward Lloyd, later of Lloyd’s of London, was the primary meeting place for merchants, ship owners, and others seeking insurance.
A basic system for funding voyages to the New World was established. In the first stage, merchants and companies would seek funding from the venture capitalists of the day. They, in turn, would help find people who wanted to be colonists, usually those from the more desperate areas of London, and would purchase provisions for the voyage.
In exchange, the venture capitalists were guaranteed some of the returns from the goods the colonists would produce or find in the Americas. It was widely believed you couldn’t take two left turns in America without finding a deposit of gold or other precious metals. When it turned out this wasn’t exactly true, venture capitalists still funded voyages for a share of the new bumper crop: tobacco.
After a voyage was secured by venture capitalists, the merchants and ship owners went to Lloyd’s to hand over a copy of the ship’s cargo manifest so the investors and underwriters who gathered there could read it.
Those who were interested in taking on the risk signed at the bottom of the manifest beneath the figure indicating the share of the cargo for which they were taking responsibility (hence, underwriting). In this way, a single voyage would have multiple underwriters, who tried to spread their own risk by taking shares in several different voyages.
By 1654, Blaise Pascal, the Frenchman who gave us the first calculator, and his countryman, Pierre de Fermat, discovered a way to express probabilities and better understand levels of risk. That breakthrough began to formalize the practice of underwriting and made insurance more affordable.
Fire Insurance Beginnings After the 1666 London Fire
In 1666, the Great Fire of London destroyed around 13,200 homes. London was still recovering from the plague that had begun to ravage it a year earlier and an estimated 100,000 survivors were left homeless. The following year, property developer Nicholas Barbon began selling fire insurance as a personal business, which was then established as a joint-stock company, the Fire Office, in 1680.
Life Insurance: Emergence and Growth
Life insurance began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries in England, France, and Holland. The first known life insurance policy in England was issued in 1583. But, lacking the tools to properly assess the risk involved, many of the groups that offered insurance ultimately failed.
That started to change in 1693, when astronomer and mathematician Edmund Halley, best known today as the namesake of Halley’s Comet, studied birth and death records in the city of Breslau for the purposes of calculating the price of life annuities. This gave rise to the use of mortality tables in the insurance industry.
Insurance Integration: The Slow Journey into America
Insurance companies thrived in Europe, especially after the Industrial Revolution. Across the Atlantic, in America, the story was very different. Colonists’ lives were fraught with dangers that no insurance company would touch. For example, starvation and related diseases killed almost three out of every four colonists in the Jamestown settlement from 1609 to 1610, a bleak period that came to be known as “The Starving Time.”
Ultimately, it took more than 100 years for insurance to establish itself in America. When it finally did, starting around the 1750s, it brought the maturity in both practice and policies that developed during the same period of time in Europe.
When Did Insurance First Start?
Insurance has had a long history and its starting point can trace back to different times depending on the type of insurance. It has its origins in the Babylonian empire, Medieval guilds, the Great Fire of London, and maritime insurance.
What Is the Oldest Form of Insurance?
Some of the oldest forms of insurance are considered to be the bottomry contracts of merchants in Babylon around 3,000 to 4,000 B.C. These contracts stipulated that the loans that merchants took out for shipments would not need to be paid if the shipment was lost at sea.
What Is the Oldest Insurance Company in the World?
The oldest insurance company in the world is considered to be Hamburger Feuerkasse, which was founded in 1676. Its first policies provided fire insurance within the city walls of Hamburg and reimbursed owners the market value of their buildings up to 15,000 marks, with a 25% deductible.
The Bottom Line
The history of insurance stretches from the Code of Hammurabi through medieval guild systems, the rise of maritime insurance and the origins of Lloyd’s of London, and the growth of fire insurance after the Great Fire of London.
The development of mortality tables later helped shape modern life insurance by improving risk assessment. Over time, insurance evolved into a tool for spreading risk and protecting individuals and businesses from financial loss.
